Top 5 Companies in Terms of Social Responsibility

November 13, 2012 Top 5 Companies in Terms of Social Responsibility We live in a society that holds companies accountable for their actions in relation to the environment, the welfare of the less fortunate, and the investors that fund them. A company’s actions in terms of social responsibility are placed into three categories: profit responsibility, stakeholder responsibility, and societal responsibility. Profit responsibility refers to a company’s responsibility to maximize profits without using deceptive or unfair practices.Stakeholder responsibility is a company’s responsibility to consider the consequences of its actions on those that can be negatively affected by them. Societal responsibility refers to the duty a company has to preserve the environment and to the public in general. Using these guidelines, CR magazine compiled a list of the most socially responsible companies. The top five on this list are: 1. Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. 2. International Busines s Machines Corp 3. Intel Corp. 4. Microsoft Corporation 5. Johnson Controls IncAs a global â€Å"BioPharma† company, Bristol-Myers Squibb uses its resources to formulate medicines that help millions of people affected by various illnesses. They have devised a strategy that combines their resources in order to maximize profit while providing a value to consumers. â€Å"We focus on our customers’ needs, giving maximum priority to accelerating pipeline development, delivering sales growth and continuing to manage costs† (BMS). While making a profit, Bristol-Myers Squibb has continued to pursue its mission to provide access to healthcare through their patient assistance programs.These programs provide free or low cost medicines and services to those that have met financial hardship. In addition, they provide a diverse workforce that respects cultural and familial differences among its employees. As for the environment, Bristol-Myers Squib integrates â€Å"comprehen sive energy management, pollution controls, and other practices to reduce environmental impacts† at their worldwide facilities. â€Å"Bristol-Myers Squibb delivers on its commitments: to our patients and customers, to our employees, to our global communities, to our shareholders and to our environment† (BMS).According to the New York Times, Bristol-Myers Squibb declared a self imposed ban on drug ads in 2005. He reasoning behind this ban was to give physicians time to understand new products before patients began asking for them (Saul). â€Å"We want to make sure that before we start mass media – television, radio and print branded advertising – that physicians have a level of comfort about the treatment and which patients are appropriate for it,† Brian Henry, a spokesman for Bristol-Myers, said (qtd. in Saul).International Business Machines Corp, also known as IBM, is a global technology company that prides itself on thinking outside of the box to â€Å"solve some of the world's most complex problems† (IBM). In terms of corporate citizenship, IBM uses a comprehensive approach to focus on societal issues that include literacy, education, and community economic development. They utilize a global environmental management system to ensure they are protecting the environment at all of their worldwide facilities.Approximately 8% of their purchases are from diverse suppliers and they also have a commitment to maintaining employee diversity. â€Å"IBM believes that a company culture based on core values not only helps our business, but also defines the role that we can and should play in society† (IBM). CBS News published an article detailing IBM’s 2008 study on corporate social responsibility. This study showed that only 17 percent of companies ask customers for their social responsibility concerns. â€Å"IBM believes that by asking customers about their CSR concerns, companies can actually uncover new sales op portunities† (Holstein). One clear implication of the study for top management is this: it no longer suffices to have one office dedicated to CSR, handing out a few community grants. CSR needs to be built into the business units and into the business strategy† (Holstein). Intel prides itself at maintaining the highest standards through leadership, company governance, contributions to health and environment issues, and within its commitment to being socially responsible. The company has created a code of conduct that focuses on improved worker conditions, economic development, and a cleaner environment for communities.Beyond their code of conduct, Intel has an innovative education program that provides girls worldwide with educational opportunities through technology access and community learning programs. They have also created their Teach Program to assist teachers in becoming effective educators. All of this is in line with their vision: â€Å"This decade we will crea te and extend computing technology to connect and enrich the lives of every person on earth† (Intel). According to Huffing Post writer, Ryan Scott, â€Å"Intel has decidedly immodest goals for its corporate community involvement† (Scott). In 2011 alone, Intel funded nine different projects to the tune of $125,000 in total to nine different projects. One of the recent programs is Intel's work studying colony collapse disorder† (Scott). Microsoft Corporation claims global corporate citizenship through the company’s commitment to fulfill its public responsibilities by serving the needs of people in communities worldwide. â€Å"As our company has grown, this commitment has extended far beyond our own products and services and has been amplified many times over through our network of partners, including governments, nonprofits and other organizations† (Microsoft).One of the ways in which Microsoft serves the community is through YouthSpark. YouthSpark is a hub that provides access to tools, programs, and resources to help children and teens imagine and reach their full potential. In addition, they strive to work responsibly through a diverse workforce that provides competitive compensation and extensive employee training in addition to benefits to domestic partners of employees. They also provide humanitarian response worldwide and aid in empowering nonprofit organizations to do the same. We provide powerful technologies and human support that make it possible to keep families and communities connected, and speed the arrival of much needed aid† (Microsoft). Beyond an initial response, Microsoft stays to help rebuild. â€Å"We extend our commitment beyond the immediate need, supporting rebuilding efforts for months and years afterward† (Microsoft). Microsoft’s statement seemed to ring true in a brief article published by the Seattle Times. â€Å"Microsoft said it will donate $1. 25 million, a combination of cash and in-kind donations, to Haiti earthquake relief† (Chan).With this effort, they also encouraged employee participation by â€Å"matching annual donations up to $12,000 per worker and reaching out to local government and non-government agencies to offer help† (Chan). Johnson Controls provides an environment in which their employees understands and values each other’s similarities and differences. â€Å"We cultivate a culture where our people recognize it is the strength of personal relationships across businesses and functions that help us continually succeed† (Johnson Controls).The company also practices diversity in its selection of suppliers, increasing diverse suppliers from 300 to 420 in 2009. Johnson Controls also shares a spirit of giving through global community relations that support arts, education, health and social services, the environment, and leadership development. â€Å"In 2011, Johnson Controls donated more than $15. 4 million worldwide to nonprofit and community organizations in support of these causes† (Johnson Controls). According to WTMJ out of Milwaukee, Johnson Controls made a â€Å"historically large† donation to Milwaukee Public Schools in September 2012. The plan involves an investment in Pulaski High School's automotive program† (WTMJ). While details of the dollar amount were not available, the donation itself is a testament to Johnson Controls support of education. To conclude, a company’s actions in terms of social responsibility are placed into three categories: profit responsibility, stakeholder responsibility, and societal responsibility. The top five are known as, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. , International Business Machines Corp. , Intel Corp. , Microsoft Corporation and Johnson Controls Inc.From resources to formulate medicines that help millions of people affected by various illnesses, to inventing the new Microsoft Windows 8 system, each have become a huge part in society and in our lives and most likely continue to be part of our future. Works Cited BMS. â€Å"Bristol-Myers Squibb – A Global Biopharmaceutical Company. † Bristol-Myers Squibb – A Global Biopharmaceutical Company. N. p. , n. d. Web. 07 Nov. 2012. . Chan, Sharon. â€Å"Microsoft Donating $1. 25M to Haiti Earthquake Relief. † Seattle Times. N. p. , 15 Jan. 2010.Web. 10 Nov. 2012. . CR Magazine. â€Å"100 Best Corporate Citizens 2012. † Corporate Responsibility Magazine. N. p. , n. d. Web. 07 Nov. 2012. . Holstein, William J. â€Å"IBM's Study on Corporate Social Responsibility: It's a New World. † CBSNews. CBS Interactive, 18 Mar. 2008. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. . IBM. â€Å"IBM – United States. † IBM – United States. N. p. , n. d. Web. 07 Nov. 2012. . Intel. â€Å"Company Overview. † Intel. N. p. , n. d. Web. 07 Nov. 2012. . Johnson Controls. â€Å"ABOUT USOur Community Focus. † Our Community Focus. N. p. , n. d. Web. 7 Nov. 2012. . Microsoft. â€Å"Microsoft Corporate Citizenship. † Microsoft Corporate Citizenship. N. p. , n. d. Web. 07 Nov. 2012. . Saul, Stephanie. â€Å"A Self-Imposed Ban on Drug Ads. † New York Times. N. p. , 15 June 2005. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. . Scott, Ryan. â€Å"Intel: Making the World Better for Every Person on Earth, That's All. † The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost. com, 24 Aug. 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. . WTMJ. â€Å"TODAY'S TMJ4. † Johnson Controls Set to Give ‘historic' Donation to MPS -. N. p. , 26 Sept. 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. .

Minangkabau (Fundamental of culture, religion, belief and tradition) Essay

The Minangkabau ethnic group, also known as Minang (Urang minang in Minangkabau language), is indigenous to the highlands of West Sumatra, in Indonesia. Their culture is matrilineal, with property and land passing down from mother to daughter, while religious and political affairs are the responsibility of men (although some women also play important roles in these areas). Today 4 million Minangs live in West Sumatra, while about 3 million more are scattered throughout many Indonesian and Malay peninsular cities and towns. The Minangkabau are strongly Islamic, but also follow their ethnic traditions, or adat. The Minangkabau adat was derived from animist beliefs before the arrival of Islam, and remnants of animist beliefs still exist even among some practicing Muslims. The present relationship between Islam and adatis described in the saying â€Å"tradition [adat] founded upon Islamic law, Islamic law founded upon the Qur’an† (adat basandi syara’, syara’ b asandi Kitabullah). B. Historiography In the 14th century, minangkabau people arrived in Negeri Sembilan by Melaka and reached Rembau. They are civilized and able to socialize with the natives very well. Therefore, mixed marriages among them have created Biduanda tribe. Biduanda tribe is the original beneficiary of Negeri Sembilan and community leaders minang to be selected must be from the Biduanda tribe. The biduanda tribe have created a leader of Negeri Sembilan called ‘Penghulu’ and then ‘Undaang’. C. Culture The Minangs are the world’s largest matrilineal society, in which properties such as land and houses are inherited through female lineage. Some scholars argue that this might have caused the diaspora (Minangkabau, â€Å"merantau†) of Minangkabau males throughout the Maritime Southeast Asia to become scholars or to seek fortune as merchants. As early as the age of 7, boys traditionally leave their homes and live in a surau (a prayer house & community centre) to learn religious and cultural (adat) teachings. When they are teenagers, they are encouraged to leave their hometown to learn  from schools or from experiences out of their hometown so that when they are adults they can return home wise and ‘useful’ for the society and can contribute their thinking and experience to run the family or nagari (hometown) when they sit as the member of ‘council of uncles’. This tradition has created Minang communities in many Indonesian cities and towns, whi ch nevertheless are still tied closely to their homeland; a state in Malaysia named Negeri Sembilan is heavily influenced by Minang culture because Negeri Sembilan was originally Minangkabau’s territory (the people believe so by the old story from the ancestor). Due to their culture that stresses the importance of learning, Minang people are over-represented in the educated professions in Indonesia, with many ministers from Minang. The first female minister was a Minang scholar. In addition to being renowned as merchants, the Minangs have also produced some of Indonesia’s most influential poets, writers, statesmen, scholars, and religious scholars. Being fervent Muslims, many of them embraced the idea of incorporating Islamic ideals into modern society. Furthermore, the presence of these intellectuals combined with the people’s basically proud character, made the Minangkabau homeland (the province of West Sumatra) one of the powerhouses in the Indonesian struggle for independence. Today both natural and cultural tourism have become considerable economic activities in West Sumatra. 1. Ceremonies and festivals Minangkabau ceremonies and festivals include:  § Turun mandi – baby blessing ceremony  § Sunat rasul – circumcision ceremony  § Baralek – wedding ceremony  § Batagak pangulu – clan leader inauguration ceremony. Other clan leaders, all relatives in the same clan and all villagers in the region are invited. The ceremony will last for 7 days or more.  § Turun ka sawah – community work ceremony  § Manyabik – harvesting ceremony  § Hari Rayo – Islamic festivals  § Adoption ceremony  § Funeral ceremony  § Wild boar hunt ceremony  § Maanta pabukoan – sending food to mother-in-law for Ramadhan  § Tabuik – Muslim celebration in the coastal village of Pariaman  § Tanah Ta Sirah, inaugurate a new clan leader (Datuk) when the old one died in the few hours.  § Mambangkik Batang Tarandam, inaugurate a new leader (Datuk) when the old one died in the pass 10 or 50 years and even more, must do the Batagak Pangulu. 2. Performing arts Traditional Minangkabau music includes saluang jo dendang which consists of singing to the accompaniment of a saluang bamboo flute, and talemponggong-chime music. Dances include the tari piring (plate dance), tari payung (umbrella dance) and tari indang. Demonstrations of the silat martial art are performed. Pidato adat are ceremonial orations performed at formal occasions. Randai is a folk theater tradition which incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the silat martial art. Randai is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals, and complex stories may span a number of nights. It is performed as a theatre-in-the-round to achieve an equality and unity between audience members and the performers. Randai performances are a synthesis of alternating martial arts dances, songs, and acted scenes. Stories are delivered by both the acting and the singing and are mostly based upon Minangkabau legends and folktales. Randai originated early in the 20th century out of fusion of local martial arts, story-telling and other performance traditions. Men originally played both the male and female characters in the story, but since the 1960s women have also participated. 3. Crafts Minangkabau songket, the pattern in the lower third representing bamboo sprouts West Sumatra grand mosque with Minangkabau-modern style. Particular Minangkabau villages specialize in cottage industries producing handicrafts such as woven sugarcane and reed purses, gold and silver jewellery using filigree and granulation techniques, woven songket textiles, wood carving, embroidery, pottery, and metallurgy. 4. Cuisine The staple ingredients of the Minangkabau diet are rice, fish, coconut, green leafy vegetables and chili. The usage of meat is mainly limited to special occasions, and beef and chicken are most commonly used. Pork is not halal and therefore not consumed, while lamb, goat and game are rarely consumed for reasons of taste and availability. Spiciness is a characteristic of Minangkabau food, and the most commonly used herbs and spices are chili, turmeric, ginger and galangal. Vegetables are consumed two or three times a day. Fruits are mainly seasonal, although fruits such as banana, papaya and citrus are continually available. Three meals a day are typical with lunch being the most important meal, except during the fasting month of Ramadan where lunch is not eaten. Meals commonly consist of steamed rice, a hot fried dish and a coconut milk dish, with a little variation from breakfast to dinner. Meals are generally eaten from a plate using the fingers of the right hand. Snacks are more frequently eaten by people in urban areas than in villages. Western food has had little impact upon Minangkabau consumption and preference to date. Rendang is a dish which is considered to be a characteristic of Minangkabau culture, and is cooked 4-5 times a year. Other characteristic dishes include Asam Padeh, Soto Padang, Sate Padang, Dendeng Balado (beef with chili sauce). Food has a central role in the Minangkabau ceremonies which honor religious and life cycle rites. Minangkabau food is popular among Indonesians and restaurants are present throughout Indonesia. Nasi Padang restaurants, named after the capital of West Sumatra, are known for placing a variety of Minangkabau dishes on a customer’s table along with rice and billing only for what is taken. Nasi Kapau is another restaurant variant which specializes in dishes using offal and the use of tamarind to add a sourness to the spicy flavor. 5. Architecture Rumah gadang (Minangkabau: ‘big house’) or rumah bagonjong (Minangkabau: â€Å"spired roof house†) are the traditional homes of the Minangkabau. The architecture, construction, internal and external decoration, and the functions of the house reflect the culture and values of the Minangkabau. A rumah gadang serves as a residence, a hall for family meetings, and for ceremonial activities. With the Minangkabau society being matrilineal,  the rumah gadang is owned by the women of the family who live there – ownership is passed from mother to daughter. 6. Oral traditions and literature Minangkabau culture has a long history of oral traditions. One oral tradition is the pidato adat (ceremonial orations) which are performed by panghulu (clan chiefs) at formal occasions such as weddings, funerals, adoption ceremonies, and panghulu inaugurations. These ceremonial orations consist of many forms including pantun, aphorisms (papatah-patitih), proverbs (pameo), religious advice (petuah), parables (tamsia), two-line aphorisms (gurindam), and similes (ibarat). Minangkabau traditional folktales (kaba) consist of narratives which present the social and personal consequences of either ignoring or observing the ethical teachings and the norms embedded in the adat. The storyteller (tukang kaba) recites the story in poetic or lyrical prose while accompanying himself on a rebab. A theme in Minangkabau folktales is the central role mothers and motherhood has in Minangkabau society, with the folktalesRancak diLabueh and Malin Kundang being two examples. Rancak diLabueh is about a mother who acts as teacher and adviser to her two growing children. Initially her son is vain and headstrong and only after her perseverance does he become a good son who listens to his mother. Malin Kundang is about the dangers of treating your mother badly. A sailor from a poor family voyages to seek his fortune, becoming rich and marrying. After refusing to recognize his elderly mother on his return home, being ashamed of his humble origins, he is cursed and dies when a storm ensues and turn him along with his ship to stone. The said stone is located in Air Manis beach and is known by locals as batu Malin Kundang Other popular folktales also relate to the important role of the woman in Minangkabau society. In the Cindua Mato epic the woman is the source of wisdom, while in whereas in the Sabai nan Aluih she is more a doer than a thinker. Cindua Mato (Staring Eye) is about the traditions of Minangkabau royalty. The story involves a mythical Minangkabau queen, Bundo Kanduang, who embodies the behaviors prescribed by adat. Cindua Mato, a servant of the queen, uses magic to defeat hostile outside forces and save the kingdom. Sabai nan Aluih (The genteel Sabai) is about a young girl named Sabai, the hero of the story, who avenges the murder of her father by a  powerful and evil ruler from a neighboring village. After her father’s murder her cowardly elder brother refuses to confront the murderer and so Sabai decides to take matters into her own hands. She seeks out the murderer and shoots him in revenge. 7. Language Location ethnic groups of Sumatra, the Minangkabau is shown in light and dark olive. The Minangkabau language (Baso Minangkabau) is an Austronesian language belonging to the Malayic linguistic subgroup, which in turn belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch. The Minangkabau language is closely related to the Negeri Sembilan Malay language used by the people of Negeri Sembilan, many of which are descendants of Minangkabau immigrants. The language has a number of dialects and sub-dialects, but native Minangkabau speakers generally have no difficulty understanding the variety of dialects. The differences between dialects are mainly at the phonological level, though some lexical differences also exist. Minangkabau dialects are regional, consisting of one or more villages (nagari), and usually correspond to differences in customs and traditions. Each sub-village (jorong) has its own sub-dialect consisting of subtle differences which can be detected by native speakers. The Padang dialect has become the lingua franca for people of different language regions. The Minangkabau society has a diglossia situation, whereby they use their native language for everyday conversations, while the Indonesian language is used for most formal occasions, in education, and in writing, even to relatives and friends. The Minangkabau language was originally written using the Jawi script, an adapted Arabic alphabet. Romanization of the language dates from the 19th century, and a standardized official orthography of the language was published in 1976. Denominations ISO 639-3 Population (as of) Dialects Minangkabau min 6,500,000 (1981) Agam, Pajokumbuh, Tanah, Si Junjung, Batu Sangkar-Pariangan, Singkarak, Orang Mamak, Ulu, Kerinci-Minangkabau, Aneuk Jamee (Jamee), Penghulu. Source: Gordon (2005). Despite widespread use of Indonesian, they have their own mother tongue. The Minangkabau language shares many similar words with Malay, yet it has a distinctive pronunciation and some grammatical differences rendering it unintelligible to Malay speakers. 8. Adat and religion Animism has been an important component of Minangkabau culture. Even after the penetration of Islam into Minangkabau society in the 16th century, animistic beliefs were not extinguished. In this belief system, people were said to have two souls, a real soul and a soul which can disappear called the semangat. Semangat represents the vitality of life and it is said to be possessed by all animals and plants. An illness may be explained as the capture of the semangat by an evil spirit, and a shaman (pawang) may be consulted to conjure invisible forces and bring comfort to the family. Sacrificial offerings can be made to placate the spirits, and certain objects such as amulets are used as protection. Until the rise of the Padri movement late in the 18th century, Islamic practices such as prayers, fasting and attendance at mosques had been weakly observed in the Minangkabau highlands. The Padri were inspired by the Wahhabi movement in Mecca, and sought to eliminate societal problems such as tobacco and opium smoking, gambling and general anarchy by ensuring the tenets of the Koran were strictly observed. All Minangkabau customs allegedly in conflict with the Koran were to be abolished. Although the Padri were eventually defeated by the Dutch, during this period the relationship between adat and religion was reformulated. Previously adat was said to be based upon appropriateness and propriety, but this was changed so adat was more strongly based upon Islamic precepts. With the Minangkabau highlands being the heartland of their culture, and with Islam likely entering the region from coast it is said that ‘custom descended, religion ascended’ (adat manurun, syarak mandaki). Bugis (Fundamental of culture, religion, belief and tradition) Religious Beliefs. Almost all Bugis adhere to Islam, but there is great variety in the types of Islam practiced. Most Bugis identify themselves as Sunni Muslims, but their practice, influenced by Sufi tenets, is a syncretic blend that also includes offerings to spirits of ancestors and deceased powerful personages. However, reformist Islamic organizations, especially Muhammadiyah, have gained many adherents in some areas and have established their own educational institutions. The I La Galigo literature preserved in ancient manuscripts ( lontara’ ) describes a cosmology involving an upper-world and an underworld, each of seven layers, and a host of heavenly beings from whom nobles trace descent, but knowledge of details of this literature is not widespread among commoners. The To Lotang, a group of non-Muslim Bugis in Sidrap regency, continue to adhere to an indigenous belief system based on the lontara’ and similar to that of the Toraja to the north, but has had to affiliate with the nat ional Hindu movement to retain legitimacy as a religion. The extent to which Hindu-Buddhist notions have influenced Bugis religious and sociopolitical notions is currently a matter of debate. The I La Galigo literature presents a pantheon of deities ( dewata ) from whom nobles trace descent, but contemporary Bugis argue that this literature basically recognizes a single great God ( Dewata Seuwa à © ) in accord with the monotheism of Islam. Despite this, some of the other deities (e.g., the rice goddess) are still given offerings, even by Muslims. Village Bugis also recognize a panoply of local spirits associated with the house, the newborn, and sacred sites; they are variously termed â€Å"the ethereal ones† ( to alusu’ ), â€Å"the not-to-be-seen† ( to tenrita ), â€Å"evil spirits† ( sà ©tang ), etc. In fact, every object is thought to have its own animating spirit ( sumange’ ), whose welfare must be catered to in order to insure good fortune and avert catastrophe. Religious Practitioners. In addition to Islamic judges ( kali ), imams serve as local leaders of the Muslim community; they conduct Friday worship services, deliver sermons, and  preside at marriages, funerals, and local ceremonies sanctioned by Islam. Small numbers of transvestite priests ( bissu ), traditionally the guardians of royal regalia, still, though rarely, perform rituals involving chants in a special register of Bugis directed to traditional deities recognized in the lontara’. Curing and consecration ceremonies are conducted by sanro, practitioners with arcane knowledge and expertise in presenting offerings and prayers to local spirits. Ceremonies. Besides the celebration of calendric Islamic holidays (Lebaran, Maulid, etc.), Bugis of syncretic orientation perform many domestic consecration ceremonies ( assalamakeng ) involving offerings to local spirits, guardians of the house, supernatural siblings of the newly born, and other such spirits. Some districts and regencies also sponsor festivals marking planting and harvesting, although some of these have become more civic spectacles than religious celebrations. Especially among nobles, weddings are major occasions for the display of status and often involve presentations of local culture, including processions. The bissu rituals, however, increasingly are restricted and performed without large audiences. Arts. Regional dances (e.g., padendang ) are still performed at some ceremonies for the harvest and other occasions, as well as at government-sponsored festivals, but some (e.g., bissu dances) are now rarely performed. Young men enjoy practicing Indonesian martial arts ( pencak silat ) and the traditional sport of maintaining a woven rattan ball ( raga ) in the air with one’s feet and other body parts, excluding the hands. Traditional Bugis houses still abound, and are used as the basis of modern architectural designs, but figurative art is meager in keeping with Islam. Bugis music is also heavily influenced by Middle Eastern models. Music performed on flute ( suling ) and lute ( kacapi ) similar to that in West Java is common. Epic songs of traditional and contemporary martial heroes are still composed and performed, even on radio. Amulets, especially of Middle Eastern origin, are in demand, while Bugis badik, daggers with characteristically curved handles, are prized heirlooms. Gold ornaments and gold-threaded songket cloths are paraded at weddings. Royal regalia are now on display in some local museums. Medicine. While Western medicine has made inroads with the government-established rural medical health centers ( puskesmas ), many illnesses are seen as specifically Bugis and curable only by indigenous practitioners ( sanro ) who use such techniques as extraction of foreign objects, massage, use of bespelled or holy water, and blowing on the patient after the utterance of prayers. Illness may be due to one’s spirit leaving the body when subjected to sudden shock, and certain therapies are directed to its recovery. Invulnerability magic is much prized, with the shadow playing an important protective role. Certain illnesses and misfortunes are inflicted by specific spirits associated with each of the four major elements—fire, air, earth, and water. Death and Afterlife. Islamic notions of heaven and hell are now most influential, although among syncretic Bugis local spirits are still identified as the spirits of deceased rulers and other formerly powerful individuals. Funerals follow Islamic rites, and are not occasions for major redistributions, as among the neighboring Toraja. Memorial gatherings for prayer and a shared meal may be performed at such intervals as forty days after a death. History of the Bugis in Malaysia Traditionally rice farmers, the reputation of the Bugis as seafarers began only after 1670. Defeated in a protracted civil war in their homeland in southwest Celebes (now Sulawesi) in 1669, they started a diaspora and entered into the politics of the Malay peninsula and Sumatra. Under the leadership of Daeng Parani (â€Å"Daeng† is a Bugis noble title), the descendants of Daeng Relaga settled on the Linggi and Selangor rivers and with the creation of the office of the Yam Tuan Muda (Bugis underking), became the power behind the Johor throne beginning from 1722.[2] Conquest of Riau-Johor: After Sultan Mahmud II of Riau-Johor was murdered in  1699, his Bugis bendahara, Abdul Jalil, became the new Sultan. Many locals did not support him as he was not of royal blood [3] and being Bugis, was neither a Malay. Thus, upon ascending the throne, Abdul Jalil killed all the wives of Sultan Mahmud to avoid any future claims to the throne. However, one wife, Che Mi, managed to escape to Minangkabau and gave birth to Raja Kechil.[4] Less than two decades later in 1718, Raja Kechil (then aged 18 or 19) assembled a Minangkabau fleet and ousted Sultan Abdul Jalil, basing his legitimacy on the claim that he was the posthumous son of Sultan Mahmud Shah II. Sultan Abdul Jalil was demoted to Bendahara and he fled to Pahang but was murdered by Raja Kecil’s men.[5] Abdul Jalil’s brother ran amok and killed his own wife and children.[6] Led by Daeng Parani from Selangor in 1722, the Bugis mercenaries who had earlier assisted Raja Kechil in his campaign now changed sides and fought against Raja Kechil. Chain-cladded and using muskets and blunderbusses, Daeng Parani’s warriors drove Raja Kechil out of Riau-Johor where he flee to Siak and founded a new Sultanate. Because the Bugis were not regarded as Malays, Daeng Parani asked Sultan Mahmud’s son, Sulaiman, to become the figurehead ruler, whilst making his own brother, Daeng Merwah, the Yamtuan Muda who would wield true power in the kingdom. For the next 200 years, the Bugis Yamtuan Mudas would be the real power behind the throne. Selangor Sultanate (1745-present): The Bugis first settled in Selangor around 1680. After wielding power in Riau-Johor, the Yamtuan Muda’s family ruled Selangor from there. Wishing to break away from Riau-Johor, Selangor’s Bugis chief, Raja Lumu, traveled to Perak in 1745 and was installed as the Sultan of Selangor by Sultan Muhammad Shah who had become the Sultan of Lower Perak the year previous. Raja Lumu then took the name of |Sultan Sallehuddin Shah and became the first Sultan of Selangor. His descendants rule Selangor to this day. First Bugis-Dutch War (1760): The Bugis and the Malays in Bintan, the capital of Riau-Johor, were always at loggerheads and in 1753, the Bugis decided to leave for Linggi in present-day Negeri Sembilan to begin their own trading center. As they were good traders, ships soon traveled to Linggi to trade and Bintan lost its wealth. In 1760, Sultan Sulaiman asked the Dutch to help  him defeat the Bugis in revenge. Unfortunately for him, the Bugis uncovered his plan and attacked the Dutch first, almost capturing Dutch Melaka. After the Dutch won, Sultan Sulaiman made a fatal mistake by allowing Daeng Kemboja, the defeated Bugis leader, to return to Bintan. That same year, the elderly Sultan Sulaiman died. His son and grandson, who in turn became the sultan, died the following year in quick succession. Many Malays believed that the three sultans were poisoned by the Bugis.[7] The infant Sultan Mahmud Shah III was then installed and with no strong sultan to challenge them, the Bugis once again became powerful in Riau-Johor. Second Bugis-Dutch War (1784): Hostilities between the Bugis and the Dutch was sparked by a dispute over the cargo of a seized English ship. In frustration, the Bugis leader, Raja Haji, began to attack ships in the Straits of Melaka, prompting a failed Dutch attempt to try to blockade Bintan. Supported by Selangor and Rembau, the Bugis then attacked Dutch Melaka. Raja Haji was killed and the Bugis fled to Bintan when vessels from Holland arrived and defeated the Bugis. The Dutch then captured Bintan and took control of Riau-Johor. Sultan Mahmud remained as sultan but the new Dutch Resident, David Ruhde, held the real power. Thus, power in the old kingdom of Riau-Johor passed from the Malays to the Bugis and now to the Dutch.

Multicultural Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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Sector Matrix Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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The article “Verismo” Essay Example for Free

The article â€Å"Verismo† Essay The article â€Å"Verismo† discusses the beginning of movement in Italian literature and opera, as well as provides in-depth overview of Verismo as literature style, musical style and as essential component of Italian theatre. Verismo is defined as movement in Italian literature which caused emergence of new theatrical and operatic genres. Actually, verismo became so-called innovatory drive originated from the French naturalism. The most brilliant representatives of verismo were Giovanni Verga and Luigi Capuana, and the theorist Federico de Roberto. Verismo is said to share some characteristics with naturalism. For example, both styles promote impersonal style of narration and they authors were deeply interested in the lower social strata. In other words, they tended to incorporate a true-to-life approach when illustrating contemporary reality. Furthermore, veristi, the writes of this genre, developed their own character in their literary works. For example, they assessed the relations between science and art from new perspective. It is known that verismo has strongly influenced the development of Italian theatre as the genre introduced regional milieux which combined lower-class idioms and local customs. Verismo enriched theatrical repertoire offering extraordinary blend of romantic style with bourgeoisie comedy. Verismo provided new acting style to illustrate unsophisticated characters on the scene. Verismo has also affected opera. Two famous operas of this style were â€Å"Mala Vita† and â€Å"Pagliacci†. â€Å"Mala Vita† was launched by Umberto Giordano as a brand of operatic verismo. â€Å"Pagliacci† was launched by Leoncavallo and was considered rather complex work. Leoncavallo was both the author of music and libretto. It is argued that in the opera â€Å"the explicit violence of the double murder committed by the white-faced clown is usually seen as the dramatization of an actual incident remembered from the composer’s childhood†. Verismo is also defined as musical style of Giovane Scuola. In music this style was strongly influenced by the works of Massenet and Wagner due to their emotional rhetoric. Verismo in music was very passionate with sentimental languor. The style tended to combine delicacy with explicit violence, in particular, in the vocal lines. Moreover, it tended to change solo piece by ensembles as it ensured better cohesion of sound and vocal. Orchestral motifs were often referred to. Nevertheless, verismo denied bel canto coloratura. It is argued that only in the 19th century opera had reached its dramatic continuity, in which spoken drama was combined with canons of musical one. Puccini was the first to achieve in his opera â€Å"Manon Lescaut† the most satisfactory blend of spoken and sung words. Reflective Commentary It is a matter of fact that verismo strongly influenced not only literature works, but also theatrical and musical world as verismo was something people hadn’t been yet acquainted with. Everything new was practically always valued and appreciated in art world and, therefore, verismo has played important role in development of Italian theatre and opera. However, all the mentioned trends should be viewed in the context of the century to get the whole picture of style development. Nevertheless, the style is rather complex as it combined delicacy and violence, rudeness and kindness, etc. Verismo was creator of new reality, in which sensationalism and triviality came together in â€Å"Iris† and â€Å"Tosca†. It is necessary to add that verismo defined new kind of musical dramaturgy which was so needed after the decline of Romantic melodrama. I see Verismo combined together expressionism, symbolism and exoticism. Verismo tended to create reality through truth as ‘vero’ means ‘truth’ in Italian. The genre couldn’t betray its original meaning. However, in contrast to naturalism, verismo rejected the scientific nature and social usefulness. Frankly saying, I think that some veristi were likely to be pessimists who based their works on the premise of impersonality. Failure to impose personal meaning shows desire to escape from reality they tended to reflect.

Trends of Punctuation in English and Lithuanian

Trends of Punctuation in English and Lithuanian Introduction The world of knowledge always tempted the scientists of any spheres. The nature, human body and brain gave birth to the many branches of science such as physics, medicine and philosophy. The analysis of a language was also one of the most popular branches of research of the linguists and grammarians of the fifteenth century. The unbounded interest in the development and variation of a language, and its constructions presented to the world the new approaches analysing the oral and written forms of any language: the phonology, phonetics, grammar and semantics. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the scholars focused on the study of sounds and their pronunciation. The phoneticians and linguists analysed the origin of vowels and consonants, their structure and the interactions with other sounds, proffering different theories on the usage of them. A few decades later, the majority of scientists turned their focus on the analysis of a communication, basically, the orally expressed l anguage. They gave birth to the new branch of the analysis of language: the rhetoric. Analysing the language as the changeable system of sounds and their combinations, the scientists believed that oral presentation of a language could be divided into smaller units, which were distinguished with the assistance of hearing. Moreover, this division could help to show the purpose of the thought expressed, not only indicating the mood of a speaker, but also presenting the correct function of a thought in a sentence. However, the sixteenth century and the growing needs of the written texts, made the scholars to realize that the language was more complex system of communication. The influence of a church encumbered the scientists. Consequently, the linguists had to concentrate not only on the structure of a sentence and its correlation in a paragraph; they also had to find a method to inbreathe the emotions to the written expressions of thoughts, that the created sentences on the paper would have the same intonation as it was produced orally in a conversation. In order to achieve this purpose the punctuation was created. Motivational basis of the research. The grammarians paid great attention to the phonology, syntax, grammar, the structure of a sentence and its expressions in the oral and written forms. They noticed that the oral structure of the thought cared equal importance of the one visually presented. Moreover, the scientists realized that fair influence was made on the comprehension of a thought or a text. They believed that the punctuation was the basis not only in the specification of the purpose of a sentence, but also in the identification of a style of a text presented. In order to understand the purpose and the usage of marking, the scientists analysed punctuation from different trends of linguistic. Thus, the punctuation was divided into two different traditions: the rhetorical and grammatical. From rhetorical point of view, the composition played the most important role in any kind of communication. The grammarians assumed that composition was a foundation-stone in the science of rhetoric. They presented a theory that a good text or a paragraph depended on three components: â€Å"clear thinking, reading the best and most vigorous writers; and frequent practice in writing, along with careful polishing of what we have written.† ( Meiklejohn J. 1915:175) In other words, the good presentation of a text, especially a thought expressed in written or oral form, depended on the correct and considered structure of a sentence. The linguists, on the contrary, saw oral speech as a â€Å"multimodal, multi channel event that encoded a lot of redundant information.† (Dawnkings J. Breath, Grammar, and Proper Punctuation 1925:1) According to them, people varied the intensity of speech; modulated the intonation, making their voice to rise or to fall as well as using the gestur es, body language and facial expressions. These actions provided additional information on the message produced. The linguists also assumed that the punctuation was expressed with help of intonation, pitch and pauses. Later, these methods took the role in the grammatical division of a sentence. Intonation in written texts served as â€Å"a controller of meaning† providing â€Å"more phrasing information to the reader.† (Flippo R.F. Punctuationand intonation effects on the perception of texts 2001:133). Pitch, on the other hand, indicated the emotional state of a speaker. Rising or falling tone of any word uttered showed the feelings of a communicator either anger, the cry, warring or command. The body language and gestures also assisted in the comprehension of a thought expressed. Grammatical tradition of punctuation, however, lost these â€Å"visual and auditory channels leaving only words and grammatical structures to carry the message.† (Dawnkings J. 1925:2) The grammatical punctuation was used as system of marks that separated or combined the words, sentences or their parts. The linguists assumed that the main function of the punctuation marks was to present a correct meaning of a thought and a speaker or writer was responsible for this action. However, the grammarians soon realized that the liberal rules of punctuation not only provided the freedom of a writer to express their thoughts in the structure they wanted; frequently, this method of punctuating texts led the readers into the ambiguity. Although, the grammarians tried to present and explain the grammatical rules in the simplest way as possible, many people as well as students yet confronted with the difficulties in punctuating any sentence or a text. Therefore, the interest in the punctuati on as intonational device expressing the thought of a written language and the arising difficulties analysing the sentence from structural point of view in both languages English and Lithuanian languages have formed the motivation basis of the research. Different groups of linguists understood the conception of the punctuation differently. Ones concentrated on the intonational part of the sentence and analysed the punctuation marks as the markers of the mood or emotional state of a reader or a writer. Others believed that marking consisted of the strict, sometimes called dogmatic, grammatical rules which could divide the sentence for the further graphical analysis. From these opinions the traditional (rhetorical) and modern (grammatical) concepts of the punctuation appeared. Although, the traditional point of view of punctuation lost the attention in the beginning of the sixteenth century, more and more the grammarians chose to focus their attention on the analysis of the text from the rhetorical point of view, and to practice this way of teaching the grammar, especially punctuation, concentrating on the fluency and the sound of the thought, rather than the structure or strict order of the words. They were of the opinion that the richness and fluency of any text was provided through the intonation and the way to achieve that correct punctuation was required. It may seem that the grammatical point of view had the same function: to indicate a sentence and provide the fluency of the thoughts or texts. However, modern view of punctuation concentrated on the structure of a sentence. It divided a text into units, sentences, and their parts. It indicated the beginning or the end of the thought presented in sentence; provides the general information about a cert ain type of a sentence such as declarative, affirmative, or question. Grammatical analysis distinguished the sentence into units, while rhetorical point of view presented the sentence analysing its â€Å"voice† expressed while reading in silent or out loud. The purpose of the research paper attempts both: the introduction of the punctuation from the traditional and modern points of views and the comparative analysis of punctuation marks comma and dashas well as their interactions with the structure and meaning of a sentence of the texts in English and Lithuanian languages. The main tasks for attaining the aim are: to introduce a reader to the major trends of punctuation to collect the empirical data coherent with the variation of the punctuation and its application of rules on the original texts and their translations to analyse and compare the system and the usage of the punctuation marks of both languages: Lithuanian and English In order to fulfil the research, the analytical, interpretive and comparative methods have been used. The study of analytical method is used for the analysis of scientific literature sources related to the punctuation, its development and the difficulty of its usage. The application of interpretive methods is necessary for the presentation of the different aspects and ideas presented in the analysis the punctuation. The comparative method provides the possibility to distinguish the different functions of punctuation marks used in the texts of scientific and belles-lettres styles. Literature review. Analysing the punctuation from the very ground, it appeared that the first ever used mark in presenting a sentence was a â€Å"space.† Its function was to indicate a short pause between the words either in oral or written forms. Though rhetoric was an ancient science of speaking, it also had some changes including the development of new theories on its function. Defining the rhetoric, it might be said that this science was a system of five canons: â€Å"inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria and pronuntiatio.† (NauckÃ…Â «naitÄ— 2000: 12) These canons served as the guiding lines to the correct and clear way of a speech presented. Though, the classicists and modernists of rhetoric analysed the texts according to these five canons, they expressed different opinions on the relationship between a speaker and communication. The classicists believed that the mind was the most important feature in a human, while the main purpose of rhetoric wa s to persuade the listener. The followers of the modern rhetoric, on the contrary, stated that the significant part in a human was the feelings. The expression of feelings used in the communication provided the mutual understanding between the speaker and the listener. Concentrating on the relationship of speaker and listener, the modernists drew a conclusion that the main purpose of rhetoric was to inform the listeners rather than to persuade. Passing decades, however, made the linguists to realize the significant changes in the conception of rhetoric. Many of them noticed that the rhetoric started to be used an indicator of stylistics. Meiklejohn saw the rhetoric as â€Å"the art of putting sentences together.† (Meiklejohn J. M. D. English Grammar, its history and literature 1915: 175) He stated that â€Å"a text has to be presented clear, coherent and vivid. â€Å"(1915: 175) To achieve this, the writer had to know the grammar, sentence structure, and the particularity of language and its clarity. Rhetorical approach of punctuation presented the punctuation marks as indicators of the intonation. The term of intonation referred â€Å"to a means for conveying information in speech which is independent of the words and their sounds.† (Nolan F. 2006:1) According to Francis Nolan, the intonation fulfilled several tasks in analysing language. Intonation â€Å"signalled grammatical structure, [†¦] reflecte d the information structure of an utterance, highlighting constituents of importance.† (2006:1) The punctuation marks, used in the field rhetoric analysis, provided a reader the stylistically presented text. In the text, the punctuation marks indicated the pitch (beginning or the end of the sentence), tone (the mood or attitude of a speaker), and pauses (the length of time, used between the words). Each mark had its own function, such as presenting a request, an order or command. In other words, punctuation provided a reader vivid and natural utterance of a language, which was very similar to the conversation. The usage of a specific punctuation mostly depended on the style the text or a paragraph presented. Therefore, it might be assumed that stylistics also contributed to the rhetoric. Knowing the style or genre of a written text (whether it was scientific, belles-letters or essay) it was easy to notice a particular structure of the sentences, which characterised the punctua tion. A text, written on the scientific purpose, had more complicated structure of punctuation than the belles-letters. Long complex sentences, unemotional, specific terminology and concrete language pictured the scientific style, where the basic punctuation marks appeared to be comma, semicolon and colon. On the contrary, the belles-letters style and essay offered more liberal marking system of a text using the figures of speech such as parenthesis, similes or periphrasis. These figures of speech often played the role of a text colouring. Ã…Â ½uperka K. in his work Stilistika showed the punctuation as a tool of a rhetoric, where the words provided the emotional shade of a sentence and the marks only indicated the mood of the speaker. Walker J., however, offered a different explanation of punctuation. According to him, punctuation was a system of principles that arose† from nature of the living voice, from the perception of harmony in the ear, and from a certain super addition to the senesce of language, of which grammar took no account.† (Walker J. A rhetorical grammar 1829:40) This kind of attitude provided the basic explanation of the prediction of a mark. In order to present the actual intonation, used in any conversation or written text, the writers concentrated on the melody of a thought, rather than on the correct structure of a sentence. They wanted to save the natural fluency of words and sentences produced in the written texts, therefore, most of writers focused on the intonational part of a s entence, and its alteration during the conveyance of a correct meaning of a thought. Intonation, especially the rising or falling tones, played as the indicators of emotions of a speaker as well as the directive in the determination of a sentence type. From structural point of view the punctuation belonged to the syntax â€Å"a device of the communication and the expression of thoughts, presented in the form of colloquial language or written text†. (Labutis V. LietuviÃ…Â ³ kalbos sintaksÄ— 2002: 7) Presenting punctuation as a â€Å"device of the syntax†( Ã…  arÄ eviĆ¡ 1997:179), the grammarians and linguists concentrated on the functional structure of marking a sentence. The punctuation marks served as the indicators of the sentence or a text. They separated or combined particular parts of a sentence, or the whole units, marked the beginning or the end of thought. Other function of the marks was to present a clear, correct and emotional sentences used in silent reading, as they would be produced in oral communication with all specific details such as tone, intonation or pitch. Mcelroy J. presented the punctuation as a system â€Å"ultimately controlled by the principles of constructio n or thought that depended upon the usage only so far as the usage truly represented these laws of thought and construction.†(Mcelroy 1878:1) He assumed that the choice of punctuation marks and their quantity used in a text was â€Å"a question of taste† and depended on a writer. Although, clearly presented conception of the liberal punctuation gave the freedom to the creators of texts, it also influenced the text structure and incorrectly used punctuation, which let the reader or listener to the ambiguity and mistakenly interpreted meaning of a thought. Therefore, the liberty of a writer to choose the punctuating marks according to his point of view, in modern English grammar was replaced by the strict and concrete rules of punctuation. Analysing Lithuanian, on contrary, it might be said that the modern punctuation of this language were taught and used as a strict system of the rules, indicating the way of punctuating a text. Recent research, however, presented a â€Å"liberal tendency of the usage of punctuation.† (SpingytÄ— M. 2010:3)SpingytÄ— M. stated that â€Å"this liberation provided to the writer a possibility to correct the emotional weight of a sentence.† (2010:3) It was a choice of a writer to mark or emphasize a specific word or part of a sentence, which, according to him, might have some additional or influential meaning. However, there was a possibility that this kind of liberalisation might negatively affect the functions of separate punctuation marks. The liberal punctuation rules lessened the specific function of each punctuation mark, leaving a writer to decide which marking was better to be used. It might be stated that the liberal punctuation concentrated more on the intonation rather than grammatical structure of the sentence. This conclusion is based on an analysis of silent reading, which was more influenced by the visual usage of intonation and tone, and less- by the grammatical structure. The empirical data of the research.The primary resources of the bachelor paper are taken from the works: Expression of the Communicative Function of Language in Punctuation by SpingytÄ— M; Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics by Lyons J, and the Forsyte sagaby Galsworthy J. The examples used in the analysis of the punctuation marks are taken from Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics and the Forsyte saga, and their translations to the Lithuanian language. The structure of the research. The bachelor paper consists of the introduction, two main sections, conclusions and the references of the works used. The first part of the research introduces the reader to the two concepts of the punctuation, its variation and the application in the different fields of study. The first section contains the analysis of the punctuation marks from the traditional and modern points of view, i.e. the study of punctuation marks from rhetorical and grammatical fields, and their influence to the meaning of a context. The second part of the research paper provides the analysis on the system of punctuation, comparing the specific punctuation marks such as comma,dash and hyphen in English and Lithuanian languages, used in the texts of scientific and belles-lettres styles. The figures, presented in the second part were used to indicate the functions and the spread of their usage. Part I The major trends of punctuation Punctuation has been an inseparable part of written or spoken language. The punctuation marks, which served only as indicators of the elocution at the beginning of the fifteenth century, quickly influenced other parts of science: grammar, syntax and nowadays widely analysed field of the programming. Through centuries, the formed theories of the purpose and the usage of punctuation marks intrigued the experts and scientists of any language. The grammarians such as George Puttenham and Simon Daines were the first ones who provided the classification of the English punctuation marks from the rhetorical point of view in their works The Arte of English Poesie and Orthoepia Anglicana. The main purpose was to bring, at least, the basic order of punctuation marks, which were missed in the works of twelve century. The biggest merit was to be given to the grammarian Ben Johnson, who systemized the punctuation and provided its analysis from the syntactical point of view.This approach of the punctuation was used till the beginning of the twentieth century. Nevertheless, the Johnsons analysis had not provided a specific usage of marks; the writers used â€Å"commas with every subordinate clause and separable phrase.†(Encyclopaedia Britannica Punctuation in English since 16002008:85) T herefore, analyzing the texts of the middle and early modern English, the inordinate usage of the comma usually is found in those texts. Later decades brought more clarified analysis of the punctuation marks. The grammarians classified and structuralised the punctuation marks according to their purpose or functions. Punctuation became a significant part of structure and cohesion of any text. The deeper analysis of the text revived the interest of grammarians in punctuation not only from rhetorical point of view, but of grammatical as well. Punctuation became important attribute of grammar for the expression of thoughts and the correct understanding of meaning of a sentence. It did â€Å"conduce to make a written language more effective, by exhibiting with greater precision and definiteness the ideas, feelings and emotions of an author.† (Wilson J. A treatise on English punctuation 1856: 2) Therefore, the main aim of the writers was to inbreathe the same intonational expression and emotional influence to the written texts, which was used in the speech and oral communication. 1.1. Rhetorical tradition of punctuation Rhetoric was the oldest science that analysed a language from the oral perspective. Defined as â€Å"the Art of Persuasion†and â€Å"artistic use of language for the sake of aesthetic effects†(Jonge C. 2008:49), rhetoric also served as the guide to correct pronunciation and rhythm, used in speaking or the speech presentations. (Walker J. 1829: ii) Intonation, pitch, the length of pause, all these elements were classified as important features used in simple communication or presenting a speech. Moreover, they not only presented a language as a rhythmical system of sounds, they also provided additional information about the speech and the speaker himself. The rhetoricians believed that these â€Å"elements of language [were] physical: the noise words made and the rhythm of their relationship.† (Tredinnick M. Writing well 2008: 14) In other words, they had the ability to change the meaning of a sentence produced, when the pitch or tone was used incorrectly. Since the oral communication was the first human step towards the analysis of a language as a separate field, rhetoric had to carry two functions: to correct the prosody of oral language and to present the basic grammar, in this case- punctuation. The rhetoricians stated that the speech of any style provided to audience had to respond to five basic questions, also called cannons: a) inventio, b) dispositio, c) elocutio, d) memoria and e) pronuntiatio.† (NauckÃ…Â «naitÄ— 2000: 12) Each of the canons had specific function which was needed in order to express the thoughts in correct and beautiful manner of speaking. Inventio was used to gather and classify the material related to the topic. The speaker had to specify the information used in writing a speech. The term dispositio stood for the enunciation. Its purpose was to group the elements of language logically. Elocutio (style) served as the indicator of a speech presented. It was used as guiding line identifying a style of the written text and the correct grammatical usage of language. Memoria (memorization). Each speech, presented to the audience, needed to be learnt by heart. Pronuntiatio (speaking). The purpose of this canon was to present the speech in correct manner of articulation and gestures. A speaker had to pay attention to the intonation, pitch, tone of the speaking voice, especially, in order to convey the correct meaning of the thought; apart from the articulation, a speaker needed to use the gestures that convinced the meaning of a though expressed. The rhetoricians believed that, being correctly used, these canons could present the perfect creation of written or spoken work. However, rhetoric was used not only the elocution, it also involved the concrete cycle of transformation of a thought to a word. In other words, the silent or loud reading also was under the influence of the rhetoric. The reading itself was regarded as a â€Å"system of rules, which teaches us to pronounce written composition with justness, energy, variety, and ease†. (Walker J. 1829:39).Thus, it might be assumed that the reader needed to use a combination of rhetoric and grammar, in order to understand a text correctly, and to convey the correct meaning to the listener (if a text was read out loud). The rhetoric, mostly, the communication itself, involved every part of human life: â€Å"thought, language, voice and action.†(NauckÃ…Â «naitÄ— 2000:13) Although the main canons remained the same, passing decades brought some disagreements between the scholars who analysed the rhetoric. The rhetoricians were in the dilemma regarding the approach to a human and communication. These disagreements divided rhetoric into two groups: classical and modern rhetoric. (see Table 1) The followers of classical rhetoric believed that the main purpose of rhetoric was to persuade a listener; it meant to present the ideas, which were correct and kept as facts, until other, more persuasive, thoughts appeared. The information presented needed to be clear, correct and concrete, without any additional elements. The followers of modern rhetoric disagreed with the classicists. The modernists assumed that a text presented had to inform listeners or readers rather than to persuade them. The communication with the audience was the requirement; the information presented needed to imply some feelings to the audience. Modernists believed that great influence of any speech resided not only in its structure or the specific information, but also in the manner of its presentation. It might be said that the modernists had found a more delicate way to control the attention of a listener or larger audience. Table 1. The differences in classical and modern rhetoric Though, the approach of human and communication in the rhetoric confronted disagreements between the scientists, the function of punctuation was clearly defined:†the chief reason for punctuating: to clarify the intent structure of language that would-or simply might-otherwise be confusing or misleading.† (Lauchman R. Punctuation at Work 2002:24) In rhetoric, however, punctuation was used for a wider purpose. In order to present stylistically correct and â€Å"living† sentences or text, the punctuation concentrated on the speech patterns such as pitch, tone or intonation. Each mark had to fulfil a specific function that would help the reader or speaker to produce the texts more naturally, i.e. to inbreathe the exact or, at least, similar sound of a tones or pitch used in the oral communication. Moreover, the punctuation marks provided the meaning of the finished thought or showed the need of additional information as well as indicated the type or the functions of th e sentences. For instance, the full stop showed the end of a sentence, which had the falling tone. The thought was finished, and had no additional meaning. The question mark, on the contrary, introduced the reader to the rising tone and intonation, and showed the need of additional information form the different speaker. Though, each punctuation mark was important in the reading and understanding any written text, comma, dash and hyphen were widely used in rhetorical punctuation. 1.1.1. Comma and intonation Communication was inseparable part of human life. It helped to understand others, read their actions, or simply to exchange the information with each other. Writing as well as speaking had the same purpose: to present any information to a reader. However, the complication arose: the most of the aspects of a language used in speaking were not â€Å"as well represented in writing: the rises and falls in pitch, the accents, the pauses, the rhythm, the variations in voice quality— all of them features of sound that contributed significantly to speaking but that writing showed haphazardly if at all.†(Chafe W. 1989:1) Thus, the main purpose of the usage of punctuation was to present the visual equivalent to the spoken language in order to show the correct tone or intonation used in the sentence. The missed or misplaced punctuation mark often led to the misinterpretation of the meaning. The equal misinterpretation of a meaning depended on the rhythm, i.e. the stress marks and the length of syllables. Intonation itself strongly effected the communication; the correct function of information depended on the manner of its utterance. The linguists noticed that people â€Å"more violently react to intonational meanings than to lexical ones.† (Hewings M. Tone Choice in the English Intonation of Non-Native Speakers 1995: 251) It might be stated that the information presented to the audience usually was under the influence of intonation. Pitch, rising or falling tones began to play the significant role in the quality of any spoken text. A speaker needed to pay attention not only on spoken text, but also to control his voice level and the length of pauses between the words. The scientists of phonetics noticed that the variations in a spoken activity were influenced by several external factors: environment, the rank of people spoken to and the audience to which information was presented. Through the careful analysis of speech activities, the scientists noticed the three styles of pronunciation: formal, careful colloquial, and rapid familiar. Formal style of pronunciation was used to â€Å"reading, reciting, speaking before larger audience, at ceremonies, or delivering an academic lecture.† (Hoppe R. 2004: 20) The careful colloquial style had medium tempo and used the assimilations. This style was used in â€Å"every-day conversations, when talking to the official persons or strangers.†( Hoppe R. 2004: 20) The rapid familiar style was expressed in â€Å"rapid conversations: speaking with friends, in the family, or in the pub.† (Hoppe R. 2004: 20) This style used fast speed, the assimilations and reductions. The speech spoken in rapid tempo lessened the length of a pause in a sentence; this led listeners not only to the misunderstanding of the whole information, but also to the annoyance towards the speaker because the information spoken in rapid manner was hard to follow. The slow speaking, on the contrary, extended the length of pauses and they lost main function. A speech or presented text became monotonic and hard to follow, as well as influenced the variation of tone; the long pauses changed the structure of sentence. Therefore, in order to control the length and structure of the sentences, punctuation was used. It might be stated that comma was the most widely used punctuation mark in rhetoric. The main function of this mark was to present the pauses between the words and to indicate a type of tone or intonation used in a sentence. The changes of intonation depended on the place of comma used in a sentence. In other words, comma separated the words from them to running to other parts of a sentence influencing their changes of intonation. To present the deeper analysis of the tone and intonational variations, the sentences from Galsworthy J. work The Forsyte Saga and its translation into Lithuanian by Irena BalÄ iunienÄ— were chosen. The visual presentation of the flow and the alteration of the tone and intonation of sentences were analysed using the special markingâ€Å'. (see Table 2) Table 2. The symbols used for the transcription of the pronunciation The symbol The purpose of usage. â€Å' à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ long pause à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ short pause low falling melod

We Should Not Fear Cloning Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Topics

We Should Not Fear Cloning    With the successful cloning of animals, many people have reacted with frightening and usually uninformed ideas about what cloning is and what researchers hope to achieve through it. Many wish to ban all cloning without even looking at the positive things that cloning will be able to provide for us in the future and with continued research. Like any new technology, people are at first afraid, but this is no excuse to abandon research that could one day save millions of people through cloned organs or give an alternative and safe means of reproduction to sterile couples. This fear has only been furthered by the media sensationalizing the advancement and tossing "Brave New World" into every headline. The uninformed also look to popular culture instead of facts to argue against cloning. Jurassic Park, Frankenstein and The Island of Doctor Moreau have shown to the majority of American the dark, evil side of cloning, which is not the aim of scientists and at present not technologically pos sible. It is obvious that we must act now and set guidelines, both ethical and legislative, but we should not ban cloning completely without further research. The picture of an amazingly rich person cloning the perfect army of soldiers or breeding a nation of subservient clones has been fed to the people through newspapers and the nightly news. What most people do not realize is that clones are not grown in a petri dish. Clones still have to be protected in a womb for nine months and be born, just like any other person. It would be far easier for an ultra rich man to produce an army or a group of slaves "the old fashion way." As a society and as humans, we should worry about the slavery and despotism that already ... ...e fears." CNNfn. 1997. http://www.cnnfn.com/hotstories/bizbuzz/wires/9702/25/cloning_wg/ (28 Feb. 1997) Glassman, James. "Should We Fear Dolly?" The Washington Post. 1997. http://washingtonpost.com:80/wp-srv/WPlate/1997-02/25/012L-022597-idx.html (28 Feb. 1997) Darrow, Siobhan. "Should we be cloning around?" CNN Interactive. 1997. (28 Feb. 1997) Scheinin, Richard. "Religion grapples with man-as-creator." Mercury Center. 1997. (28 Feb. 1997) Coghlan, Andy. "One small step for a sheep." New Scientist. 1997. http://www.newscientist.com/clone/smallstep.html (28 Feb. 1997) Concar, David. "The point of no return." New Scientist. 1997. http://www.newscientist.com/clone/comment.html ( 28 Feb. 1997) Coghlan, David and Andy Concar. "How the clock of life was turned back." New Scientist. 1997. http://www.newscientist.com/clone/comment.html (28 Feb. 1997)

Model of Leadership Essay -- Leadership, philosophy

A large amount of work has gone into studying, researching, and developing models of leadership. There have been numerous models put forth, examined, applied, and either used or discarded. However, after all this work, there is still not one 'perfect' model or method of leading. Every situation and group is different, therefore a good leader must be flexible. A good model of leadership is one that incorporates different models into one that understands that the only constant is change. Therefore, my model of leadership will be based primarily upon flexibility. I feel that a leader must first understand the basic styles of leadership and how to apply them. Then he/she can know what style is the most appropriate given the task and group composition. Second, he/she must be able to observe his/her group in order to decide when the aforementioned styles are to be applied, and when problems begin threatening the group or its task. Then, that leader must be able to effectively communicate and influence his/her followers in order to fix problems, provide feedback, and inspire a group to be more than the sum of its parts. That is what effective leadership is about. â€Å"Whatever is flexible and flowing will tend to grow. Whatever is rigid and blocked will atrophy and die.† -John Heider, The Tao of Leadership A flexible leader realizes the advantages and disadvantages inherent in each of the three styles of Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-faire leadership. While it seems that most of the researchers agree that democratic style is the most effective, there are certain situations that call for different styles. Effective leadership demands that a leader be able to adjust his/her style according to the circumstances. Autho... ...th honey than with vinegar.’ It is my hope that I have developed a competent model of leadership arising out of flexibility. I hope that I can apply this model in my own practices of leadership, to help me build the confidence I need to grow out of my leadership apprehension. I feel that an understanding of the group process, and of the styles of leadership, working together, can provide one with a very powerful method of effective, flexible leadership that can be applied to multiple groups and situations. First, by learning the styles of leadership, he makes harmony between himself and the group. When understands how the group acts and reacts, he can make harmony between the members of the group. And when this leader understands how to influence and conduct his followers, they can both begin to play beautiful music that no one would have been able to play alone.

“Eveline” by James Joyce Essay

â€Å"Eveline† is a short story by James Joyce.   Eveline is 19 and standing at a crossroads in her life.   She has a single choice to make as she stands and reflects at the ship dock.   The decision she must make is whether she should go with Frank, her secret soon-to-be husband or stay with her father in the only place she has ever known.   â€Å"Frank was very kind, manly, open, hearted,† (Joyce 45) and offers Eveline a â€Å"new home, in a distant unknown country† (Joyce 44) in Buenos Ayres.   Her father is aging, grumpy, and often threatens violence is she does not do what he says.   Eveline ponders what her duty really is.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are several good reasons for Eveline to leave with Frank and get married.   â€Å"Her brothers and sisters were all grown up†, (Joyce 42) and her mother was dead.   Her childhood friends, Tizzie Dun was dead and the Waters had moved back to England.   She is forced to spend her days working in a store making money she must turn over to her father.   She spends her evenings taking care of the house, her father, and two young children. This is not exactly the life she has read about in romance novels or daydreamed about in grade school.   It is hard work and with the knowledge that â€Å"Everything changes† (Joyce 43) she wants to â€Å"go away like the others, to leave her home.† (Joyce 43).   She knows   if she stays, she will stagnate.   She will still be breathing but she will be just as dead as her mother if she chooses to stay.   Frank offers her a life of new adventures and love.   When she is married she will have respect and Frank will not be violent with Eveline as her father was with her mother.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As Eveline â€Å"tried to weigh each side of the question† (Joyce 43) she begins to develop a list of reasons why she must stay.   This is the only home Eveline as has ever known.   It is full of   â€Å"familiar objects which she had dusted once a week for so many years† (Joyce 43).   And wonders if she will ever see these things again. Here, with her father, she has food and shelter, and the comfort of the known.   She also fears that the people she knows in town will consider her â€Å"fool† (Joyce 43) when they realize she had run away with a fellow† (Joyce 43).   Her father is old and forgetful, and she worries if he can take care of himself.   The overwhelming reason why she feels it is her duty to stay because of â€Å"her promise to keep the home together as long as she could.† (Joyce 47) to her mother just before she died.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eveline’s relationship with Frank is based solely on hope.   Frank is a sailor who is kind but tells her â€Å"tales of distant countries. He had started as a deck boy at a pound a month on a ship of the Allan Line going out to Canada†(Joyce 46).   And her father warns â€Å"†I know these sailor chaps†Ã¢â‚¬  (Joyce 46).    Is Frank being truthful or is he a typical sailor with a girl in every port.   She hopes that he is telling her the truth because she has no other evidence that he is.   Frank symbolizes escape.   When she reflects on her promise to her dying mother and her subsequent death she thinks to herself â€Å"Escape! She must escape! Frank would save her. He would give her life, perhaps love, too But she wanted to live. Why should she be unhappy? She had a right to happiness. Frank would take her in his arms, fold her in his arms. He would save her.†(Joyce 47).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The question remains for Eveline, will she go with Frank or stay at home.   Of course in the end she decides to stay.   She chooses the known over unknown excitement.   The comfort of stability and a familiar environment far outweighs her desire for a new life, in a new home with new people.   In the end she chooses â€Å"hard work — a hard life — but now that she was about to leave it she did not find it a wholly undesirable life.† (Joyce 45).   â€Å"Eveline† is a story about choice and learning to live with the consequences of that choice. Works Cited Joyce, James. Dubliners. New York: The Modern library, 1954. Questia. 6 Dec. 2005 .   

Biblical Worldview Essay Essay

Introduction The Bible is an illustration of God and His love for us. Within the pages that we so effortlessly read, it is our life long journey to embody Christ and adhere to scripture and it’s teachings. The lessons to be learned in life are all encompassed in God’s words. The Bible displays so many lessons on life and how our lives should resemble His love. In this essay, we will examine the scripture of Romans 1-8 as it teaches us in great multitude of how our biblical worldview derives from the various aspects within those chapters. The Natural World God made the heavens and the earth, therefore, any and all acknowledgment of the natural world is a blessing by which He spoke the words of life and it appeared. We give all praise to God for providing such a blissful place to lie before we unite with Him in Heaven. The natural world is distinctively seen throughout Romans but more so in Romans 1:20 where Paul writes, â€Å"For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse.† This piece of scripture is saying that through all of our doubt in God and His power we can’t deny the fact that the world in which we live in is a product of His power. Without our natural world we would not exist and be able to live and die within our flesh. Our natural world is a showcase in which God shows His presence  within every facet of our natural world. Human Identity â€Å"Then God said, ‘Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground.’ So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.† Written in Genesis 1:26-27. To identify as humans is to embody Him because God created us in His image and gives us the choice to be Christ-like. To be Christ-like we must connect with Christ in all avenues so that we may die with sinful flesh but forever live in Heaven as an untouchable essence that no sin can corrupt. We are designed in the image of God and it’s our sole purpose to live life and love, as His son Christ loved us. Human Relationships Human relationships are a complex aspect to our lives. If we look at this topic from a biblical worldview then all human relationships and encounters should derive from love and not of hate. Since we are created in God’s image it is only fitting that we pay other humans the same love that we grace in our Lord’s presence. In Romans 5 we read of how humans are destined to be sinful as a result of the original sin but through Christ’s birth and sacrifice we can be born again and be seen through a new light. Romans 6:11 states so clearly, â€Å"In the same way, count yourselves dead to sin but alive to God in Christ Jesus.† We are giving a second chance in living up to God’s image and allowing our human relationships to cultivate as a result of Christ’s love for us. From that point on we are no longer seeking out God’s acceptance but rejoicing in His profound forgiveness. Culture God does not see us as a culture or a race. He identifies us by our faith and saves us by his grace. Within the Roman scripture we see that the Romans  had faltered in their ways and the habits in which they displayed on a regular basis showed God that their culture was full of sin and that sin inevitably forced them to turn away from God. Acknowledging God’s presence but not acting in accordance to His word is a sign of a culture of rebellion and denial. The Romans turned their backs on God and this is not something that you would want God to do. Some cultures seek out God and long to live for Him and as stated from history, there are the lesser fortunate cultures and subcultures that follow their flesh and their minds. Your culture does not define your relationship with God but it can inhabit you from ever having a relationship with Him. Conclusion Throughout life we can identity what our worldviews are and throughout our life with God and the Bible we can stamp our biblical worldviews and share them to the world. The things we see, hear, touch, smell, and taste are all products of our God’s spoken words to create life. We should live everyday of our lives thanking Him for grace. We can be thankful that God created us all in His image and it is our life long pursuit to live Christ-like. Our flesh will always be a burden and let us down because of Adam’s sin yet it is Christ who sacrificed himself and gave us the opportunity to be born again. Our newfound life as a child of God is to live as Christ did and love others as He loves us. God loves us by grace and does not see us as cultures but as individuals whom seek him and love him as Christ does.